Remaining Capacity of LFP and NMC Batteries-Extensive Analysis of Commercially Available BEV Models in European Union
APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL, cilt.16, sa.15, 2026 (SCI-Expanded, Scopus)
- Yayın Türü: Makale / Tam Makale
- Cilt numarası: 16 Sayı: 15
- Basım Tarihi: 2026
- Doi Numarası: 10.3390/app16157756
- Dergi Adı: APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL
- Derginin Tarandığı İndeksler: Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED), Scopus, Applied Science & Technology Source, Compendex, INSPEC, Directory of Open Access Journals
- Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Adresli: Evet
Özet
The increasing number of new battery electric vehicle (BEV) registrations worldwide and the development of advanced batteries with higher energy density and pack capacity have contributed to large volumes of batteries approaching the end of their first service life. The retired batteries may be repurposed in second-life applications or recycled. The degradation profile of BEVs is a critical determinant in second-life potential of the retired batteries. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of calendar and cycle mechanisms in lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries across 37 commercially available BEV models in the European Union (EU) market. Three scenarios are considered, based on the operational temperature-Scenario I with a 273.15 K, Scenario II with a 298.15 K, and Scenario III with a 318.15 K operational temperature-and two degradation metrics are determined for each analyzed BEV: state-of-health (SoH) and remaining capacity at end-of-life (EoL). The results show that the SoH of both chemistries is highly dependent on the state-of-charge (SoC), temperature, depth of discharge (DoD), and real usable capacity. Moreover, the Tesla Model 3-Premium RWD, Volkswagen ID.3, ID.4, and ID5-GTX, and the Tesla Model Y-Premium AWD all exhibit a remaining capacity between 40 and 77 kWh at EoL, depending on degradation profile, making them a viable option for second-life applications.